Nat Turner Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Nat Turner - Essay Example He was the property' of Benjamin Turner, a plantation owner. Nat Turner's mother and grandmother had been brought to America from Africa and hated the concept of slavery from the bottom of their hearts. Nat grew up deeply religious and intensely sharing his mother's views of slavery. He gradually believed that He was God's prophet chosen to lead his people out of slavery. An annual solar eclipse convinced Turner that God had signaled from the Heavens above to start a revolution and with seven other of his associates or friends who were also slaves launched a rebellion. The rebellion began with the house of Nat's new master Joseph Travis. Almost 50 white people were killed. Contrary to what Nat had planned the rebellion was crushed within 48 hours and he himself was captured several days later. Naturally this insurrection had incited public fury and led to a thousand idle exaggerated and mischevious reports' (Thomas R. Gray). It heralded the beginning of a series of upsurges of open rebellion of the slaves which eventually led to the Great Civil War. Everything was shrouded in mystery till the confession' of Nat Turner was brought to light. Thomas R. Gray met Nat Turner in prison and recorded his account of the slave rebellion .Nat Turner was regarded as the Great Bandit'. Thomas Gray claims he found Nat willing to make a full and free confession of the origin, progress and consummation of the insurrectory movements of the slaves of which he was the contriver and head'. (Thomas Gray) The Confessions of Nat Turner like all other confessions cannot be held to be a document of Absolute Truth. It is definitely a revelation of several facts most of which can be corroborated further but every convict even during the last confession of his life will be in fear of his captor even if faced with the gallows. Moreover, what he said has been written down by Thomas Gray in the prison cell. Just as what Turner said may have been directed by emotion so also what was finally written may have been tainted by the writer of this confession to satiate the greatly excited public mind'. The mind is fraught with the very pertinent question did Turner voluntarily make these confessions The Confession remains a subject of intellectual debate , "both praised as a brave look into a rarely represented life, and maligned for what many saw as a clichd conception of a black man.". (NAT TURNER: A Troublesome Property, Styron 1967) Nat Turner's rebellion marked a year that also saw the rise of the abolitionist movement, growing tensions over states' rights and the arrival of the steam locomotive.1831 proved to be a watershed year in American history (Louis P. Masur, author of 1831: Year of Eclipse). The hysterical climate that followed Turner's revolt, blacks from as far away as North Carolina were accused of being part of the insurrection and even executed. Harriet Ann Jacobs, who later escaped to freedom, describes this climate of fear and harassment in her memoirs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Written by Herself. Nat 's confessions regarding his visions were probably correct and seem to be the words of a prophet who is convinced about his convictions. He sincerely believed that the Holy Spirit which spoke to prophets of earlier times actually spoke to him. He claims unabashedly that the Spirit told him "Seed ye the

Racism in the Tuskegee Experiment Essay Example for Free

Racism in the Tuskegee Experiment Essay The Tuskegee experiment, begun in 1932 by the United States Public Health Service in Macon County, Alabama, used 400 black men who suffered from advanced stages of syphilis.   This study was not a means of finding a cure; the patients offered no preventative measures to prolong or better life.   Although the history and nature of syphilis was well understood, certain scientists believed that more research could certainly be done. In terms of whom to study, the doctors developing the format discovered a â€Å"ready-made situation† (Jones 94). Macon County Alabama was impoverished, like much of the country in 1932.   The selection process began during the depression, a time of separation and intolerance.   In the rural South, where we find Tuskegee, the men chosen were not seen, at the time, as equal in any sense of the word. Jones refers to prominent doctors of the region who, in the late 1800s, scientifically defined diseases that were peculiar to the race.   One such disease, Cachexia Africana, caused the subject to eat dirt.   The public did not question such obviously ridiculous claims at the time.   In fact, the public heralded these doctors and requested a manual for treating blacks in order to save slave-owners and the like money in paying for doctors (17).   Given the distaste for the ethnicity of the subjects, could their ethnicity have been a factor in the selection process? At the time, the medical profession had already made some false assumptions about the African American race in general.   Jones reiterated the white-held theory that black men had larger penises and little constraints when it came to sexual intercourse (23).   It was also believed that they were harder to treat for syphilis because African Americans were stupid. In examining this mindset, it becomes clear why the government erringly felt it should go to the poorer black communities in rural Alabama conduct a syphilis study.   Believed to be an immoral sex-centered culture placed at the level of animals, the government would put them in league with mice and rats.   As disgusting as the premise is, the doctors needed lab animals and set out to find them. If this were true – how could the government get away with it?   Blatant disregard for humanity and life could not go unnoticed.   However, the geographical area in question had just been the last state of the union to discontinue chain gang use in its penitentiaries in 1928.   The South had not yet begun to consider African-Americans as people not in the slightest meaning of the word. Jones reiterates the sentiment of the doctors at the time and place with, â€Å"short of a ‘quick-fix’ by science requiring no behavior changes by blacks, there was no hope for the race† (26). The Health service claimed they informed the subjects of their disease, although an internship at the time the experiments began, Dr. J.W. Williams, stated the men received no such information.   He also claims the internships registered the data collected without understanding the nature of the experiment either (Jones 5). The term ‘racist’ as defined in the Random House Webster’s College Dictionary reads, †a belief or doctrine that inherent differences among various human races determine cultural or individual achievement, usually involving the idea that one’s own race is superior† (1072).   Given this definition, it is clear that the Tuskegee experiments were racist.   To withhold the nature of the experiments from the subjects, the name of the disease, the treatment of its symptoms and to feel no remorse in inflicting this sort of medical indictment on fellow human beings is not just racist, but also immoral and unjust. Jones points out the Health Services did investigate the treatment of these patients in an Ad Hoc committee.   The resulting medical treatments for the wives and children of the male subjects was offered with no cash restitution allowed (214).   In the end, the government did agree to $10 million dollars in payments to the â€Å"living syphiltics†, the next of kin for those already dead, â€Å"living controls† and the next of kin for the dead controls.   If you had been living with the disease and never treated, you would get a grand total of $37, 500; a paltry amount for the pain and suffering from neglect and racist bigotry (217). Works Cited Jones, James H. Bad Blood: The scandalous story of the Tuskegee experiment – when government doctors played God and science went mad. New York, NY: The Free Press, 1981. Random House Webster’s College Dictionary, 2nd Ed.   New York, NY: Random House, 1997.

Collaborative Work in Social Care

Collaborative Work in Social Care Introduction The following essay proposes to consider the question of collaborative working in social care, looking in particular at the impact of collaborative working between agencies and professional disciplines within the context of children and families. This represents an especially complex problem to attempt to tackle with the issues of both collaborative working and working with children families subject to an almost constant process of reform and change in the contemporary era. When, for instance, we pause to consider the way in which collaborative work has become such a central feature of contemporary social policy in western liberal democracies with the promulgation of the partnership approach to government dictating the pattern of a variety of social, cultural, economic and political initiatives, we can see that any discussion relating to multi-agency work must reside in some part within the realms of a constantly changing political ideology that seeks in the first instance to instil new parameters for social work practice (Quinney, 2006:5-21). Likewise, when we consider the changing nature of working with children and families in the contemporary era, we can see that a decidedly pervasive legislative and policy framework increasingly that seeks to infringe upon the practice of social work on both an individual and a collaborative level cannot help but impact upon our understanding of the nature and role of the social worker within the context of children and families (OLoughlin and Bywater, 2008:14-27). Thus, we need to observe from the outset the way in which the following essay constitutes an inherently subjective discussion where any conclusions garnered should be understood as open to further change and reinterpretation. For the purpose of perspective, we intend to adopt a dualistic approach to the problem at hand, looking firstly at the political, ideological and legal context in which social work with children and families currently takes place. In this way, we will be better able to demonstrate an effective understanding of the field of child and family work, the social work role and the multidiscipline system in relation to children in need and children in need of protection. Secondly, we will look at the implications of our own evidence-based research yielded from group dynamics involving a specific case study of children and families. In this way, we will be better able to demonstrate an understanding of the importance of evidence-based practice. Moreover, in this way, we will be better able to consider both the strengths and the weaknesses of the collaborative approach to social service provision at the dawn of the twenty first century. Before we can begin, though, we need to briefly consider the historical context in order to establish a conceptual framework in which the remainder of the discussion can take place. The political, ideological and legal context of working with children and families To understand the significance of the multi-agency, collaborative approaches to child protection we need to first mention some of the most profound cases of child cruelty, which have acted as a launch pad for reforms of social services. When, for instance, we pause to consider the case of Dennis ONeil who was starved and subsequently beaten to death by his foster father in 1945, we can see that instances of extreme abuse of looked after children directly contributed to reform of the child social services system. Maria Colwell was similarly abused and killed at the hands of her stepfather in spite of over fifty official visits to the family by social services, health visitors, police officers and housing officers before her death in 1973. As a result of the ensuing enquiry into Maria Colwells death, looked after children were assigned a guardian by the state. (Cocker and Allain, 2008:24) Likewise, public outrage, internal inquiries and institutional reform accompanied the murders of J asmine Beckford in 1984 and the uncovering of widespread sexual abuse amongst looked after children in Cleveland in 1987. In addition, the wrongful fostering of children on the Orkney Islands in 1991 after social workers mistakenly assumed that parents were part of a satanic cult triggered a reconfiguration of child protection policy, acting as a timely reminder as to the fallibility of decision making at an individual as well as an organisational level. Yet while it is true that childrens services have been influenced by individual historical cases of neglect, abuse and murder, it is also true that social work and childrens services are inherently tied to the dominant political ideology of the day. As we have already asserted, social work practice in the contemporary era is an inherently political issue with a pervasive neoliberal political ideology dictating the pattern of social policy and welfare reform over the course of the past two decades. Nowhere is this modernising neoliberal impetus more prominent than in the field of social work with children and families (Johns, 2009:39-54). Beginning with the Childrens Act of 1989 and continuing with the amended Childrens Act of 2004, the state has increasingly sought to make provisions for disadvantaged children and failing families in order to reduce the debilitating ill effects of marginalisation and social exclusion. These two Acts, in conjunction with a variety of other related social policies and statutory framework such as the Every Child Matters programme, constitute an ideological watershed with regards to the way in which the state legislatively copes with the numerous issues arising from children and families. Most obviously, these pieces of legislation and the broader emphasis upon social inclusion that they entail telegraph a new way of responding to issues arising from children and families by looking to target the causes (rather than the consequences) of neglect, exclusion, abuse and the ubiquitous problem of failing families. As a result, it is important to observe the way in which the reforms initiated over the closing decades of the twentieth century and the opening decade of the twenty first century represent a move away from the permissive social policies of the post-war years so as to incorporate a discernibly more preventative agenda for working with children and families (Morri s, Barnes and Mason, 2009:43-67). It is within this climate of preventative action that we must consider the genesis and subsequent evolution of collaborative social work practice with multi-agency work being intrinsically tied to the broader imperative of safeguarding children. The statutory framework of the Every Child Matters initiative, underpinned by the Childrens Act (2004) is, for instance, inherently tied to the partnership, collaborative approach to social service provision involving the active participation of professionals across all spectrums who work with children and young adults (Brammer, 2009:166). Understood in this way, the role of the social worker represents one part of a broader network of rights and responsibilities incorporating General Practitioners, psychologists, educational practitioners, housing association officers, National Health Service professionals, law enforcement agencies, government officials, local councillors, parents, family members and any number of related workers and associa tes who are able to help formulate an effective social agenda which places the child at the epicentre of all key decision-making. In this way, the social worker is better able to communicate with children who have suffered or are suffering from cases of neglect and abuse (Davies and Duckett, 2008:164-166). As a consequence, it is clear that partnership and collaboration should be understood as the ideological bedrock of the contemporary legal and political framework for dealing with children, families and young adults, constituting the single most important guiding principle for social workers operating in the highly complex, risk-orientated contemporary social sphere. Fuelled in some part by the high profile cases of internal failings contributing to childrens neglect where, most notably, the untimely death of Victoria Climbie in 2000 highlighted gross failures of the system (Laming, 2003:11-13), collaborative working between agencies and professional disciplines is today understood as the most viable means of positively impacting upon the well being of both children and families (Brammer, 2009:182.) In response to the murder of Victoria Climbie and, more pertinently, as a result of the economic imperative to cut back on public sector spending, the New Labour government, followed by the present coalition government, has increasingly sought to further the multi-agency approach to social services. The Childrens Plan (2007), for example, constitutes an ideological extension of the collaborative methodology championed in the Every Child Matters campaign with the government, agencies and professionals all charged with improving childrens lives. (The Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2010:29) Safeguarding the well being of children is therefore no longer considered to be the sole responsibility of the state; rather, it is clear that promoting the welfare of children and families is increasingly dependent upon adopting an integrated approach with a variety of agencies, organisations and individuals sharing the responsibility for welfare while at the same time ensuring that the child remains the focus of proactive, preventative action (The Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2010:31-34). It is consequently important to underline the strengths of the multi-agency approach to social care provision, underscoring in particular the way in which focusing upon collaborative working with children and families offers a holistic approach to what is an essentially multi-faceted problem. However, while we are correct to acknowledge the modernising ideology that underpins modern social work practice, we also need to observe the way in which the day to day practice of social work with children and families has revealed a significant underlying chasm between, on the one hand, the preventative legal framework and, on the other hand, the deep-seated flaws in the multi-agency, inter-disciplinary approach to welfare provision in the modern day (Oko, 2008:16-39). In spite of the best efforts of policy makers and in spite of the preventative statutory framework enshrined in the Every Child Matters initiative, there remain deep-rooted structural and logistical problems pertaining to the multi-agency approach. For example, the horrific death of Baby P in 2007 which occurred after social services, National Health Service consultants, and police officers demonstrates that there remains a clear and identifiable problem with regards to communication between agencies, organisations and professions. Moreover, the harrowing case of Baby P serves to demonstrate that, even when extreme levels of abuse are being reported, there remains a problem regarding intervention. The multi-agency approach to social care provision in the contemporary should therefore be understood as being inherently flawed with the collaborative system beset by a variety of structural weaknesses and new ideological complexities (Milner and OByrne, 2009:19-23). Although we should not seek to overlook the strengths of multi-agency, collaborative working we must, as Eileen Munro attests, consider the way in which an exceedingly risk-orientated socio-political culture has created additional problems for social workers in the modern era with an increasingly bureaucratic, administrative understanding of social services hampering the attainment of a critical understanding of the underlying economic, cultural and political factors that create problems in the social sphere (Munro, 2008:58-76). An over-emphasis upon res earch and policy has not yet yielded a significant reduction in the chasm between theory and practice. Working in a Group: The Lessons for Working with Children and Families Hitherto, we have focused upon attempting to understand how the dominant political, ideological and legal framework looks to dictate the pattern of social services at the dawn of the twenty first century. We have also seen that while policies and frameworks seek to instil a fresh, collaborative approach to working with children and young families the practical reality of working in a multi-agency context still leads to significant problems pertaining to communication. This, in the final analysis, is an inevitable consequence of working with the dynamics of groups where there is little by way of direction and where, more importantly, different group members harbour different perspectives and different ambitions with regards to the nature, role and purpose of the project at hand. In the group that I worked in, there were six participants. Two were two white women one a young woman in her early twenties; the other a woman in her thirties who is the mother of two young children. There were also two black women in the group; both of these women were in their thirties and both had children. In addition, there were two black men present in the group. As soon as the group began to convene, it was immediately apparent that there was a significant problem with regards to when the group could meet. Family commitments, coupled with work placements, conspired to make agreeing on a time to meet extremely difficult. Furthermore, when work was assigned to particular individuals it was not completed on time. A lack of structure was therefore prevalent from the start. As time went by and the problems with communication within the group continued to grow, it became apparent that the two white women took it upon themselves to act as the leaders of the group, delegating work as if they had been assigned the role of the managers. The younger woman in her early twenties was observed to be especially aggressive and domineering. When confronted she failed to act in a professional manner, which placed further strain upon the dynamics of the group. Furthermore, as the two white women exerted increasing levels of managerial control, it became apparent that they were withholding important information from the rest of the group. This was either because they did not trust the other members of the group to work to their standards or because they wished to take sole responsibility for the project upon completion. Regardless of their true intentions, the lack of co-ordination and communication resulted in a disappointing final presentation that had been undermine d on account of a wholesale lack of rehearsal. The lack of cohesive, coordinated action within the group revealed a great deal about the inherent problems of inter-agency work with children and families. Most obviously, there was a clear and identifiable problem relating to a lack of leadership and direction in the group. Although there were only six members, every participant appeared to have their own specific agenda, which meant that the overall goal became lost in the resulting confusion of responsibilities. This, according to Michael Gasper, is a key problem in multi-agency working with children and young people where a convergence of interests creates fertile grounds for problems relating to management and leadership (Gasper, 2009:92-110). In such circumstances, it is often the agency or partner that adopts the most rigorously aggressive attitude which ends up assuming a leadership-type role largely against the best interests of the project in hand. This was certainly the case in the group we observed where the two white w omen assumed leadership roles although no such premise had been discussed and in spite of the fact that no such policy had been agreed. In this instance, of course, it is impossible to ignore the spectre of underlying race issues that may have consciously or subconsciously influenced the behaviour of the two white women within the group. Race issues are intrinsically tied to power issues; thus, the white women might have felt the need to assume control of a group dominated by black people. Again, the issue of power and the impact that this has upon inter-personal relationships within a multi-agency setting is an important factor for us to consider. As Damien Fitzgerald and Janet Kay underscore, power is an inexorably important factor that needs to be legislated for when teams come together in an interdisciplinary, multi-professional context. This is especially true during the early consultative stages of group work the storming stage where there may be fighting, power struggles, disputes and destructive criticism, which need to be managed effectively so as to minimise the impact upon the setting or the service. (Fi tzgerald and Kay, 2007:92) The relationships that emerge from the storming stage are subsequently normalised during the ensuing norming stage where the team starts to adopt its own identity. If, however, the relationships between the various agencies have not settled down into an egalitarian pattern by the norming stage of development, the power struggles and internal disputes will inevitably affect the performing stage of task management. Most notably, the creative process will be stifled and the focus that should be dedicated towards the completion of the task will be diverted towards the power struggles within the group (Cheminais, 2009:38-40). This was certainly the case in the group I worked in where problems in the storming stage were translated into more serious structural problems in the norming stage, both of which ultimately affected the final performing stage of the task. Thus, once more, we need to acknowledge the significant divide between theory and practice in collaborative working with children and families where, as Jayat suggests, policies can be well intentioned, yet are often poorly co-ordinated and, in practice, under-resourced. (Jayat, 2009:92) Furthermore, while acknowledging the problems that multi-agency, collaborative work entails, we also need to consider the way in which the infusion of children into the scenario creates further avenues for a lack of cohesive, co-ordinated action. If, as the evidence suggests, information sharing is negatively influenced by multi-agency, collaborative working with adults, then it stands to reason that there is bound to be much greater scope for withholding information when children and families are integrated into the procedure. If relationships at an agency level are strained then it stands to reason that, as Butler and Roberts attest, that social workers will find it even harder to maintain open and honest relationships with children and their parents in a social work context (Butler and Roberts, 2004:129-130). More importantly, it is clear that there is little time for power struggles and disputes when a childs welfare is at stake. In the final analysis, this kind of internal wrang ling runs contrary to the central tenet of the Every Child Matters and the Working to Safeguard Children campaigns, which look to make sure that the child remains the centre of task-centred, multi-agency focus (Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2010:32). We should, of course, be careful not to assume that all group dynamics follow the pattern of the group we observed. While evidence suggests that there remains a significant scope for problems of power, communication, authority and direction within multi-agency settings it is also true that, if handled in the appropriate manner, collaborative practice allows differences in values to surface and, if effectively minded, to be aired and resolved over time (Glenny and Roaf, 2008:111) In such circumstances, multi-agency work with children and families can serve to positively influence the health and well being of service users. As a consequence, it is important not to assume that the structural weaknesses of collaboration mean that there are no strengths to the multi-agency process. Conclusion Understanding the strengths and the weaknesses of collaborative working between agencies and professional disciplines is dependent upon first understanding the distance to be travelled between the theory of prevention and the practice of collaboration at a grass roots level. Looking to reduce the divide between theory and practice, between the political and ideological framework and the multi-agency, collaborative approach, consequently represents the most critical challenge facing social workers and social policy makers alike. This is especially true as far as childrens services are concerned. Ultimately, though, when looking to pass a judgement on the relative strengths and weakness of multi-agency working with children and families we need to recall that agencies involve individuals responding to crises in the social sphere. As Beckett attests, every individual participant in the child protection process, and every profession or agency, necessarily sees things from his, her or its own particular standpoint and has his, her or its own particular axes to grind. It is important to bear in mind that no one participant possesses the pure and unadulterated truth.' (Beckett, 2009:29) Social work is an inherently complex and subjective discipline where there is no right or wrong answer to the multitude of questions arising from the breakdown of interpersonal relationships. Collaborative work should consequently be understood as being inherently fallible. Only by concentrating upon improving the internal group dynamics of multi-agency functioning can the chasm between theory and practice begin to be reduced.

Impacts Of Family Traditions And Religion In India Essay -- essays res

Impacts of Family Traditions and Religion in India Family traditions and religion greatly impact the lives of many people in India. These elements of culture are reasons that form the way that Indians lead their lives. Both factors make up what type of person that individual will become. That is the reason why religion and family traditions are so valued in Indian society. Religion is probably the most definitive factor in the way that an Indian will lead his life, particularly if they practice Hinduism. In Hinduism this person must follow a strict set of rules called Dharma. These rules state how this person shall lead his life. They state that each person must follow their Dharma at all costs. For example if their Dharma tells them to kill someone then it is acceptable to that person. A passage from the Bhagavad Gita explains this best through this passage â€Å"It is better to do one’s duty badly than to do another’s well†. Dharma varies from class to class in the caste system. The rules get stricter and stricter as one goes up the class system. The caste system is the second most definitive factor to all Indians. This caste system will determine what kind of job and what set of Dharma one must follow. This caste system tells one whom they can and cannot marry. This caste system directly impacts all of Indian society lives greatly. To me this caste system reflects a segregated community that judge’s people on the mere fact of their birth. This segregation also keeps life for...

Minority Cultures in Mississippi Essay

The purpose of this paper is to develop a better understanding of African American and Mexican American cultures in my region and their importance to United States society, as well as relating their similarities and differences to each other and my own culture. This will be done in an effort to develop skills that assist me in providing my future students the opportunity to value diversity and overcome cultural barriers and biases. This paper covers various aspects of each culture, beginning with the beliefs and traditions of each culture. In addition to those areas, the facets of religion, holidays, and foods of great significance to each culture are explored. Finally, the most meaningful area in relation to my teaching success is analyzed. The area of education is considered, focusing on educational aspirations as well as the professions of members of these cultures due to their educational backgrounds. After examining all of the aspects, the cultures will be compared and contrasted in an effort to learn how to overcome cultural differences. African American Family Life Family life is one of the most important aspects in the African American culture. This belief stems from both their African roots and early slavery. Keeping family members close was important in both tribal Africa and among slaves. Your family is believed to give you strength and support; this belief is still widely practiced today. African American families frequently visit both immediate as well as extended family. In fact, neighborhood barbeques and parties are a common occurrence. African American families also hold family reunions yearly, which include several surnames of families who may be closely related or as distant as fourteenth cousins or more. Often times, non-relatives are also invited and treated as family. Many African American neighborhoods are close-knit communities who often spend much of their spare time socializing with one another. Because of this closeness, many non-relatives become known as â€Å"play† family. These â€Å"play† family members have become such good friends to the family that they are treated as members of the extended family. The elderly are regarded as the head of the family and are given the utmost respect. To the African American culture, living a long life means the person is very wise and is often the first source for advice. An elder is believed to have led a fulfilled life and the funeral, therefore, is often celebrated as a joyous occasion. To the African American culture, death is simply passing from one realm of life to another. They believe their loved one is leaving the evils of this world behind for a utopia, so there is often a party after the burial service. African American Hairstyles and Names Many African American beliefs and traditions can be traced back to their original African roots. Locks and braiding are two of these. They are widely practiced hairstyles among African Americans today. Both types of hairstyles were started by tribes in Africa. Locks, commonly called dread-locks, are common among the tribes of South Africa. Because water is scarce and dust is prevalent in that area, locks are popular due to their ease of maintenance. Braiding, on the other hand, is an aspect of worth among Western African tribes. Often, the men of tribes there receive a braided lock for achieving a substantial accomplishment. Both of these traditional African hairstyles made their way to the United States with the slaves and are still of great importance to African American culture today, as a method of displaying pride in their historical roots. Another aspect of African American culture with ties to Africa is naming children. Children are often given names with African roots. However, the members of the African American culture have also developed a set of names, which are uniquely African American. They often add the prefixes of La-, Le-, and Da- to their children’s names, which is exclusive only to their culture. African American Music African American culture has given United States society various styles of music in the form of religious hymns and spirituals, jazz, blues, and hip-hop. Spirituals began with slaves on the plantations. They were often used to send secret messages between each other because the plantation owners could not understand their meanings. These songs were religious folk songs based on African music styles and were improvisational. The spirituals used various musical aspects from smooth flowing styles, which led to the sensual sounds of jazz, to sadness and despair, which led to the blues, to spoken-word singsong, which eventually led to hip-hop. â€Å"Ethnomusicologists trace hip-hop’s roots to the dance, drum, and song of West African griots, or storytellers, its pairing of word and music, and the manifestation of the painful journey of slaves who survived the middle passage† (McBride, 2007, p. 102). African American Language The American English language was also greatly influenced by the African American culture, especially in the Southern United States. â€Å"African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is a variation of the American English language closely associated with the speech of African Americans† (Coulmas, 2005, p. 177). AAVE is considered by many as slang, and it is in prevalent use by African Americans, as well as other cultures, all over the United States today. African American Religion The Black Church has historically been a source of hope and strength for the African American community. Religion is an essential and integral part of their lives, with approximately 85 percent of African Americans belonging to a Protestant denomination. In the African American society, God is viewed as the source of both good health and serious illness. The most common method of treating illness in the African American culture is prayer. It is expected in most churches that an individual should present their best appearance for worship. African American women in particular are known for wearing vibrant dresses and suits. The Black Church is one of intense enthusiasm and high emotion. African American author W. E. B. DuBois perhaps captured the spirit of the Black Church best by stating, â€Å"Even in the midst of preaching, the worshipers carried on a dialogue with the preacher by shouting approvals or calling out remarks aimed at encouraging him to work harder to reach his point† (DuBois, 2005, pp. 184 – 185). It is not uncommon to hear an African American congregation shouting â€Å"Amen! † or â€Å"Preach it, Brother! † or â€Å"You tell ‘em, Reverend† in agreeance with their pastor or to hear the choir echoing â€Å"Well? † behind the pulpit to advance the pastor’s next words. The entire world could learn from the African American culture’s passion for Christ. African American Holidays The African American culture has several holidays which not only help its members connect to their historical roots but assist the rest of society in identifying the significant impact African Americans have had on shaping the United States. One way this is done is through Black History Month. Each February, television networks and schools throughout the United States celebrate the contributions of various African Americans to the world. One of the individuals focused on during Black History Month is Martin Luther King Jr. , whose quest for equality, peace, and civil rights was so powerful in shaping American society that his birthday is another important holiday in the African American culture. Now recognized as a national federal holiday, Martin Luther King Jr. Day is celebrated nationwide on January 15. Another significant holiday is Juneteenth. The news of the Emancipation Proclamation signing reached the slaves of the South on June 19, 1865, and the slaves responded by having a huge celebration. Today, Juneteenth allows African Americans the opportunity to celebrate freedom and is celebrated all over the United States with food, storytelling, games, music, and African American culture. â€Å"Each year, over thirteen million African Americans celebrate Kwanzaa† (Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences, 2003, p. 57). This holiday uses customs from the harvest celebrations of Africa and was developed to help African Americans celebrate their heritage. This holiday lasts seven days and focuses on seven principles of the Swahili people. Upon a unity mat sits a candleholder with seven candles, and one candle is lit each day to represent one of the principles. Christmas is another important holiday for African Americans because of the Black Nativity play performed in many churches. Originally written by Langston Hughes, it is a retelling of the classic nativity story, only with an entirely African American cast and gospel style Christmas carols. A major performance of this play is held yearly in Boston at Tremont Temple by The National Center of Afro-American Artists (NCAAA), who refer to Black Nativity as, â€Å"a legendary Christmas event and the Black community’s Christmas gift to the world† (NCAAA, 2008). African American Foods The foods of the African Americans also play an important role in most cultures of the United Stated. These foods, commonly referred to as soul food, have become widely popular throughout the United States. Many of these foods such as black-eyed peas, cornbread, greens, sweet potatoes, macaroni and cheese, and deep fried foods were originally eaten in Africa and made their way to the United States with the slaves. While others, such as chitlins, neck bones, and ham hocks, were created by the slaves out of necessity. During their time in captivity, they were only fed the scraps that their owners would not eat, ant they had to discover methods of cooking these items in such a way that they would be edible. African American Education and Employment African Americans in Mississippi unfortunately live in one of the poorest states in the country, and their education is influenced by that factor. The poor economic state of Mississippi greatly hinders the public school system here due to lack of funding. In the Mississippi Delta, where the population is almost entirely African American, â€Å"the economy is so depleted that obtaining a quality education is extremely difficult† (U. S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2001, p. 36). The lack of a quality education hinders Mississippi’s number of high school and college graduates, but for African Americans the number is extremely grave. Only 47. 3 percent of African American students in Mississippi will earn a high school diploma, and of that percentage, only 8. 8 percent of them will go on to earn a bachelor’s degree or higher† (U. S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2001, p. 36). It is a widely known fact that not graduating high school greatly influences a person’s financial and professional future. With less than half of the African American population of Mississippi graduating high school, the poverty level among these individuals is obviously high. The number of African American families living below poverty level is tremendous, especially in majority-black communities like one would find in the Mississippi Delta. â€Å"The percentage of black families with incomes below the poverty level runs from a low of 46. 4 percent in Washington County to a high of 68 percent in Tunica County, and most Mississippi counties are marked by double-digit unemployment rates† (U. S. Commission on Civil Rights, 2001, p. 1 – 2). The individuals who are employed are most likely employed in a position that pays the federal minimum wage rate, such as fast food or retail chains, due to the low high school graduation rate. Overall, the African American culture in Mississippi is at a great disadvantage when it comes to educational and professional success. Mexican American Family Life Family closeness is an important aspect of Mexican American culture, as well. Not only do the members of this culture spend a great deal of time with their families, but they often all live together under one roof. It is not uncommon for grandparents, parents, children, cousins, aunts, and uncles to all live in the same home. The entire family is involved in all aspects of each other’s lives, with the elders being the most respected and revered members of the family. Children are expected to honor their families no matter the circumstances. Their actions must never bring shame to their family, and traditional Mexican American families are very strict on their children in an effort to keep them from participating in dishonorable acts. These values of honor, respect, and family endearment are carried out in death as well. When a loved one passes away, they are dressed in special clothing and stay in the family home overnight. While in the family home, a wake is held, and friends and family bring food to serve at the wake. Only the family then accompanies the body to the grave. No service is held, but the family members sing religious Spanish hymns. â€Å"Most significant is the perspective on death held by many Mexican American Catholics that, rather than an end, death is seen as a new beginning† (Diaz-Stevens & Stevens Arroyo, 1998, p. 73). Because of this view, for years after the original wake, on the same date, those who attended it will reunite to celebrate the life and passing of their loved one. Mexican American Names and Language For the most part, Mexican Americans stay true to their original Mexican heritage and culture. While a few Mexican American families choose to name their children more traditional American names, the majority of parents choose names with Mexican ties and meanings, like Javier, Joaquin, Carmen, and Rosa. Another way, Mexican Americans stay connected to their heritage is through their language. Even fluent English speakers tend to speak Spanish with other members of their culture, as opposed to English. Mexican American parents who choose to teach their children to speak English teach them Spanish as well and most often speak to them in the Spanish language. Mexican Americans also choose to incorporate Spanish music and television into their daily lives. In fact, the interest is so high among Mexican Americans to have Spanish television in the United States that cable and satellite providers have special packages created especially for the Hispanic people, which include channels from Mexico such as Telemundo and Univision. Mexican American Quinces Another tradition of Mexican American families is a quince. â€Å"No matter how Americanized a Latina is, chances are she will look forward to her quince. No matter how economically tight her parents might be, they will maintain the tradition† (Figueredo, 2002, p. 152). A quince is the Mexican equivalent to a sweet sixteen party combined with a debutant ball. The quince takes place on a girl’s fifteenth birthday and is very formal. The birthday girl has several female maids and male escorts in her court. The court makes its grand entrance, and the birthday girl and her father begin to waltz. Soon, the entire court joins in, and once the waltz is complete, the party continues, as would an American sweet sixteen party. Mexican American Religion Religion and prayer are very important to the Mexican American culture. â€Å"Approximately 80 percent of the Mexican American population is of the Catholic faith† (Figueredo, 2002, p. 166). Mexican Americans are a very superstitious people, frequently wearing medallions or amulets for protection. The prevention of illness and unfortunate events is believed to be accomplished with prayer, wearing religious relics, and keeping religious charms in the home. Many homes have shrines for prayer in them; these shrines contain religious statues, pictures of various saints, and prayer candles. The family members gather at these shrines, light the prayer candles and rigorously pray. Mexican American Holidays Holidays are of great significance in the Mexican culture, and many of the holidays celebrated in Mexico are still celebrated by Mexican Americans in the United States. Semana Santa celebrates the Christian holiday of Easter and runs from Palm Sunday to Easter Sunday. The most essential aspect of this holiday is attending mass on both Good Friday and Easter Sunday. â€Å"Live representations of Jesus Christ’s crucifixion take place in many communities†¦people from the communities assume the roles of Jesus, Virgin Mary, St. Peter, St. John, and many other characters† (Michigan State University, 2008). Cinco de Mayo is celebrated yearly on May 5 and commemorates the defeat of the French army by the Mexicans at The Battle of Puebla in 1862. â€Å"This victory gave the Mexican people pride in their country and the spirit of freedom and is celebrated in various parts of Mexico and in U. S. cities with a significant Mexican American population† (Michigan State University, 2008). The Day of the Dead is a celebration that represents the unity between life and death. On October 31, relatives decorate the gravesite of their loved ones in preparation for the return of their loved one’s soul. They also decorate an altar at their home with photos of the loved one and some of the loved one’s favorite items. The Feast of Our Lady Guadalupe is a very important religious holiday among Mexican Americans. It is believed that a female appeared to an Indian, outside of Mexico City, and said she was the mother of God. She left an image of herself on his cactus-cloth. â€Å"It [the cloth] should have deteriorated in twenty years but shows no sign of decay 477 years later† (Michigan State University, 2008). She has become a prestigious religious figure for Mexican American Catholics, and her holiday is celebrated on December 12 each year by attending a special mass service. The Christmas holiday season for the Mexican American culture runs from December 16 through February 2 each year and is combined with traditional Christian aspects as well as special Mexican festivities. The first of these is Las Posadas, which is nine consecutive days of candlelight processions and parties. Neighborhood families gather to reenact the holy family’s night in Bethlehem. The breaking of the pinata is a very important aspect of this holiday. The second of these is Noche Buena, which is the peak of holiday festivities, with the celebration of a midnight mass on Christmas Eve. After the mass, the families enjoy a traditional Christmas supper, common to the United States, of turkey, ham, and other common Christmas dinner items. The family then opens gifts and celebrates with a pinata and sparklers. Christmas Day is traditionally set aside for rest. The final of these celebrations occurs on January 6 and is called Dia de Los Tres Reyes Magos. This day celebrates the arrival of the Wise Men in Bethlehem. Mexican American children wake up to toys and other gifts. Rosca de Reyes is served on this day, which is a crown-shaped sweet bread decorated with jewel-like candied fruits and a tiny plastic baby hidden inside. Whoever finds the baby in their piece is required to host a party before the Christmas holiday season ends on February 2. Mexican American Foods â€Å"Tex-Mex is a term used to describe a regional American cuisine that blends food products available in the United States and the culinary creations of Mexican Americans influenced by the cuisines of Mexico† (Barrios Trevino, 2002, p. 3). Many dishes such as chili, fajitas, salsa, quesadillas, burritos, and nachos are not true Mexican dishes but were invented in the United States by Mexican Americans. Even dishes cooked here that originated in Mexico, like tacos, are not prepared in the same manner they would be in Mexico. While Mexican American Tex-Mex dishes are cooked to be hot, topped with tons of cheese, and served in large portions, true Mexican dishes are exactly the opposite. Therefore, Mexican Americans coined their own style of cooking and created some of the United States most loved dishes. Mexican American Education and Employment Unfortunately, the graduation rates for Mexican Americans are very low. The language barrier between the Mexican American culture and the English speaking population of the United States combined with the obligation on many Mexican Americans to work to help support family in Mexico no doubt contribute to this. â€Å"Only about half, 48. 7 percent, of the Mexican American population complete their high school education, and a mere 15. 4 percent of those students earn at least a bachelor’s degree† (U. S. Dept of Commerce Bureau of the Census, 2003 p. 5). The majority of Mexican Americans gain employment at blue-collar jobs such as construction or in the restaurant industry. Many Mexican Americans come to the United States illegally, which causes them to look for employment with employers who will look past their status. Being here illegally or working a blue-collar job means that most Mexican Americans must settle for low wages of minimum wage or slightly higher. Similarities Between the Two Cultures Conducting this research led to the surprising discovery of several similarities. Both cultures desire to remain close to their families, both immediate and extended, by not only seeing each other often but also buy having parties and get-togethers. Both cultures rely greatly on the elderly members of their culture for their knowledge and advice and treat them with the utmost respect and endearment. While the actual proceedings of the funeral are quite different, the cultures are the same in that they see death as a new beginning and, therefore, a cause for celebration. Both cultures are also proud of their heritage. This can be seen in everything from their celebratory traditions during certain holidays to giving their children names, which are unique to their culture. Another similarity is the strong part religion and prayer play in the lives of the members of each culture. In both cultures, prayer is believed to provide comfort and protection. Finally, the most disheartening theme which is common among both cultures is the high dropout rate among high school students and the fact that most members of each culture are employed in low paying positions either due to a lack of education or opportunity. Differences Among the Two Cultures As suspected, the research also led to the discovery of many differences among the cultures as well. As previously mentioned, the burial process of a loved one is quite different among the cultures. African Americans tend to have elaborate, celebratory services honoring the life of their loved one and invite all friends and family members to the burial service. The body is usually sent to a funeral home for preparation and burial. Mexican Americans, on the other hand, keep the body in their home and invite friends and family to pay their respects during a wake. The body is initially prepared by the family for the wake, and only family members attend the actual burial. Although African American families work hard to keep their families close, only their immediate family lives in the home with them unless circumstances cause otherwise, while Mexican Americans quite often live in a home with many relatives of both their immediate and extended family. Their religions and religious practices are also very different. Most all African Americans are of a Protestant denomination, while most all Mexican Americans are Catholic. The Catholic services of Mexican Americans tend to be very quiet and solemn, while African American services are very loud, emotional affairs, with frequent shouts of praise and singing. Shrines are also very important to Mexican American prayer, while African Americans choose to pray almost anywhere. They do not feel the need to pray at a particular place or around particular items. Another major difference is in the types of foods each culture consumes. African Americans tend to eat a lot of vegetables and fried foods, heavy in salt. Mexican Americans, however, eat meals, which include a lot of meat and tortillas with very few vegetables, which include tomatoes, onions, and hot peppers. Applying the Project to the Classroom Recognizing the characteristics of each culture, along with the similarities and differences in each culture, will assist one in overcoming cultural barriers and biases. The information in this project will prove to be very useful inside a classroom. It could be used in several ways, the first being to teach students about each culture. The second way would be to teach students how the cultures are alike or different. The final way would help students compare the cultures to their own. One way this information could be applied is by teaching students about a holiday unique to one of the cultures. For example, on or close to December 16, the teacher could ask the students to come to school dressed as a character from the nativity story such as an angel, a Wise Man, or a shepherd. Then, after studying about Las Posadas and even having a Mexican American student tell a story about the holiday if possible, the students could parade up and down the hallways of the school and end their festivities by taking turns trying to break a pinata. Another way this information could be applied is to have the children write a story about a family celebration or gathering and then having each student read their story aloud. By doing this, each child will have the opportunity to see similarities and differences between each cultural group represented in the classroom. This would also help minority groups such as African Americans and Mexican Americans identify with majority students and move toward forming bonds. A final way this information could be applied is by studying the foods eaten by both cultures. The teacher could read a story about the foods of both cultures and explain the origins of each culture’s foods. During this lesson, the students should sample various foods from both cultures. By doing this, the students will not only be learning about another culture and receiving the opportunity to try something new but will also most likely discover that they have already had many of the foods from both cultures but were unaware of it. Each culture has aspects, which are unique only to that culture. However, both cultures also have aspects, which can be related to one’s own culture. In any event, both cultures are uniquely beautiful and contribute to the United States society and culture as a whole and should therefore not only be respected but also treasured. In its own way, each culture, combined with all of the other cultures of the United States people make our nation the greatly extraordinary country that it is. ? References Barrios Trevino, D. (2002). Los Barrios family cookbook: Tex-Mex recipes from the heart of San Antonio. New York, NY: Villard Books. (Primary Source) Coulmas, F. (2005). Sociolinguistics: The study of speakers’ choices. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press. (Secondary Source) Diaz-Stevens, A. M. & Stevens Arroyo, A. M. (1998). Recognizing the Latino resurgence in U. S. religion. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. (Secondary Source) DuBois, W. E. B. (2005). The souls of black folk. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster. (Primary Source) Figueredo, D. H. (2002). The complete idiot’s guide to Latino history and culture. New York, NY: Alpha Books. (Secondary Source) McBride, J (2007, April). Hip hop planet. National Geographic, 211(4), 100-118. (Secondary Source) Michigan State University Teaching Hispanic Cultures of the Americas Institute (2008). Learning about Hispanic cultures through the study of Latino and Mexican holidays, celebrations and traditions. Retrieved June 28, 2009, from http://www. educ. msu. edu/teachglobal/Americas/module1. html (Primary Source) National Center of Afro-American Artists (2008). Black nativity. Retrieved June 27, 2009, from http://www. blacknativity. org/about/index. html (Secondary Source) Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences (2003). Guide to exploring African American culture. Retrieved June 28, 2009, from http://pubs. cas. psu. edu/FreePubs/pdfs/agrs92. pdf (Primary Source) U. S. Commission on Civil Rights (2001). Racial and ethnic tensions in American communities: Poverty, inequality, and discrimination the Mississippi delta report. Retrieved June 28, 2009, from http://www. usccr. gov/pubs/msdelta/main. htm (Primary Source) U. S. Dept of Commerce Bureau of the Census (2003). We the American: Hispanics. Retrieved June 26, 2009, from http://www. census. gov/apsd/wepeople/we-2r. pdf (Primary Source)

Religion, Faith and Society Essays

Religion, Faith and Society Essays Religion, Faith and Society Essay Religion, Faith and Society Essay From the beginning of human life, different cultures always have their own beliefs and faith. It is hard to define from where most religions came from but they help many people to live much better. So, let us define the term â€Å"religion†. Almost all kinds of religions give people rules that will lead to a better life. They provide a list of laws of what people should do or not. For example, some faiths tell people not to commit suicide if they want to go to heaven after death. Therefore, we can say that religion has a strong affect on the society. Usually it has a positive impact on people. However, even if the laws in Holy books are perfect, some people can convert the views of religion in a negative way. The first negative impact that religion makes is because people in the world are divided into different types of beliefs. There are five major religions in the world: Judaism, Islam, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Christianity. Therefore, there are some people who hate others just because they have different religions. Their point of view is that the only perfect faith is what they believe in and they have many conflicts about this topic between each other. So, we can call it a kind of prejudice. Those people who use religion to discriminate cannot name themselves as good and right believers. The reason is common for all beliefs; each religion provides respect and peace. So, if you are Christian it does not mean that you should think that people who are not, they live in a wrong way. If you are a true believer, you should be a good person inside. â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†1 provides a good example of how people do bad actions and tell others that God wants it so. Religion carries love and kindness inside but not cruelty and hate. People in this novel created the evil by themselves. I liked the main character of this book, Hester Prynne. She did not mind that people thought in a negative way about her. She knew that she was innocent because

Origins of Nazi Racist Identity essays

Origins of Nazi Racist Identity essays Racism was always an integral part of German National Socialism. The Nazi racist identity had three distinct but related aspects. These aspects were the German volk and the need for racial purity, Aryan supremacy and anti-Semitism. The first aspect of the Nazi racist identity was of the German volk and racial purity. This ideal had several origins, some of which dated back to the 18th Century. The German word Volk can be translated as people. However this word meant more to the German people. To them Volk meant the culture, essence, heritage, and value of the race. This was a result of the Romantic movement of the 18th Century and stressed the importance of all things associated with the soil and ultimately the ordinary rural people. In the 19th Century Johan Fichte, a German philosopher created ideas of pan-Germanism. His main idea was that the natural boundaries of a country lay within the races and that those who speak the same language were joined to each other by the bonds of nature. Any other people of different descent and language would upset the progress of the culture. Adolf Hitler adopted this idea also. "Ein Volk, Ein Reich, Ein Fuhrer!" - one people, one empire, one leader. These ideas had a widespread and influential public support base firstly because the Treaty of Versailles had reduced the German Army to 100, 000 so Junker generals valued the army expansion offered by pan-Germanism and therefore the recovery of lost territory. The widespread resentment in Germany at the loss of territory from the Treaty, which was a dictat or dictated peace also contributed to the support base of the Nazi Party, who advertised the desire the right the wrongs of the Treaty of Versailles and aim for ultimate racial purity in Germany. Lastly, Hitler took interest in and was much impressed by the Thule Society and had contact with the Thulists in Munich before 1924. The Thules were a volkish gr...

buy custom Genetic Predisposition and Environmental Conditions essay

buy custom Genetic Predisposition and Environmental Conditions essay Introduction HIV is an acronym that stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Just like bacteria, viruses are also infectious agents. The difference between these two agents is that viruses are much smaller and are also not self-sufficient. Though viruses can exist by themselves, they usually require a host especially for their reproduction. HIV is normally found to exist in the human immune systems macrophages and in a number of T-helper cells. This paper wishes to examine the interconnection between genetic predisposition and environmental conditions that trigger the onset of various modern diseases, in this case HIV. Viruses are known to replicate themselves once they have entered a host cell by the use of the host cells machinery. They eventually destroy it so that when it bursts open or during budding they get released. Within the human immune system, the most vulnerable cell that the HIV normally enters is the CD4 T-lymphocyte, a type of white blood cell known to perform very important roles within the immune system (HIS-CPSH, 2004). These immune cells get steadily and very slowly destroyed so that the body is weakened to be able to defend any disease that attacks the individual. When the CD4 cells are significantly reduced in number such that they fall below a given number, usually less than two hundred per cubic millimeter of blood the individual moves to the critical AIDS stage. Background In its history, the Human Immunodeficiency Virus was discovered as a strange disease among the gay community in North America. The victims would mysteriously fall sick and thereby develop certain tumors and infections that were unusual. Pneumocystic carinii was established to be one of the infectious agents. Though it had been known to be harmless, this micro-organism would make people and other organisms to experience fatal pneumonia especially in situations of abnormal weakness. Kaposis sarcoma was a tumor that was seen in these victims and was initially characterized by bluish red skin lesions on lower legs and feet. This was a cancer and was very aggressive. Its lesions would not only spread up ones body but also internally to lymph nodes (Goudsmit, 1997). Treatment of these gay men by physicians established that they had great immunodeficiency marked by a severe drop in T-helper cells. The CD4-positive cells are vital in the defense of the body against certain disease causing micro-organisms and thus by the action of the HIV that led to their destruction this role was impaired. It was evident that this impairment did not originate from an individuals own body, that is inborn, but it was acquired. This therefore made it to be known as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). The functions of the CD4 cells in the body are the recognition of any intruders and using the available fighter cells to fight these intruders off. Ironically, HIV enters the cells via these CD4 molecules and end up destroying those cells (Jones, 2010). The effect of the HIV is not immediately felt since the cells it destroys get replenished. However in the long run, the virus steady destruction of the cells leads to the bodys immunodeficiency. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus may not have been a new virus but an old virus that acquired a new degree of virulence. There exist more than one type, subtype and strains of the HIV. For example, HIV type 1 is mainly found within Europe and North America and is quickly speading towards South America. Whenever this type of HIV enters a new person, it gains strength and becomes more virulent. The most unfortunate thing is that this cycling process appears to be a family trait of the virus. It is possible that it might have acquired the mutations to bring about human immunodeficiency lately. People immune to HIV Jones (2010) asserts that studies that have been carried out lately say that there are some people who are naturally immune to the HIV. Scientists in certain places, for example Dr Nicole Bernard believes that it is the simultaneous expression of specific versions of HLA-B*57 and KIR3DL1 genes that are responsible for this innate ability to resist infection by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus. They compared people experiencing primary level of HIV infections genetic profiles with those of individuals who are recurrently exposed to HIV but are not infected in their studies. It is alleged that KIR3DL1 gene codes belonging to a receptor found on the natural killer cells of the immune systems surface get activated and thus are responsible for destroying the bodys infected cells. It is hypothesized that these genetic mechanisms usually occur immediately after the virus begins infecting the cells in ones body. Carriers of these versions of the genes are able to efficiently kill the cells that have been infected due to their exposure to HIV. It is said that after the KIR3DL1 has been activated the HLA-B*57 gene codes belonging to a protein present on body cells surfaces binds it and thus reducing the natural killer cells activity. Other scientists suggested that the generation of cytotoxic T-cells is the process responsible for the creation of the immunity against the Human Immunodeficiency Virus. This was after a research carried out by a group of researchers drawn from Japan, Gambia and England within a number of Gambian women who were apparently immune to infection by HIV. The women were prostitutes exposed to the risk of HIV infection for about five years but were free of any signs of the virus infection during that whole period. These various researches all tend to concur on one thing; that there are a number of people within the human population that are immune to HIV infection. I agree with most of these and believe in the hypothesis that this ability to resist infection by HIV is because of the individuals possession of CD8+ T-cells, immune cell types that are responsible for the identification and destruction of infected cells (Tatalovic, 2008). These cells mode of working whereby they created and then delivered perforin and granzyme B molecules that brought about immunity was the important aspect as far as this characteristic is concerned. Relationship between HIV and AIDS AIDS is the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome and an individual is said to have this disease if he has a CD4+ cell count of less than two hundred per cubic millimeter of blood or one of twenty six specific illnesses with no other known cause of immune deficiency apart from HIV. There are numerous proofs that the Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection has an underlying responsibility for the occurrence of AIDS. Most of these are based on the virologic, epidemiologic and immunologic data available. The continuous destruction of CD4+ molecules causes acute immunosuppression, neurological complications as well as constitutional illnesses and along-tthe-way infections and neoplasms. Treatments and prognoses Currently, there are no available cures for people infected with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus; however, treatment options which have the ability to make persons living with this virus to live long and fulfilling lives exist. Post-exposure prophylaxis is a type of antiretroviral treatment that is administered to an individual within the period after he is exposed to the virus. The earlier one commences this type of treatment, the higher the reduction rate of the risk of HIV infection. Entry inhibitors are yet another type of treatment options available to patients. Complete HIV infection eradication has however not been possible despite various researches that have been carried out. Scientists have established that the lack of treatment in an infected individual will make this person to have a net median period of survival of between nine and eleven years since the time of infection with the virus. In addition, a study that was conducted explains that without treatment; depending on the virus subtype an individuals median survival period after being diagnosed with AIDS is six to nineteen months. This is specifically for areas with limited resources. The introduction of newer treatment options makes peoples survival time to also change with time. Environments and conditions that help spread the virus According to San Francisco AIDS Foundation (2008), the transmission of the HIV virus from person to person occurs in the condition that the HIV virus is present in a certain individual. It can not occur where none of the individuals in question possesses the virus. How concentrated ones blood is with the virus as compared to other body fluids is also a necessary condition for infection. A slight concentration of this virus in the blood being passed from one individual to another will lead to the other person getting infected. However, for the spread of the infection to occur via body fluids there ought to be a larger concentration of this virus. HIV is transmitted in such instances as through contact with the anal mucous membrane, open wounds, eyes, genitals as well as the mouth. This is as long as the body fluids infected with HIV get access into an uninfected persons body. In African countries, apart from the other obvious factors that cause the spread of HIV, social factors such as political problems and oppressions, poverty problems, cultural factors, wars and psychological disorders among others tend to offer a basis for the illnesses proliferation. In many other parts of the world the prison environment exposes the prisoners to the risk of HIV infection through homosexuality and lesbian behaviors. In America and in other countries of the world where same sex relationships and marriages are legal people are exposed to the risk of HIV infection through sexual activities (Tatalovic, 2008). Conclusion In the case of HIV transmission, no genetic predispositions are involved in the process. Causes of the disease are mostly as a result of the exposure to bodily fluids that are infected as in the case of breast milk, semen, blood and vaginal secretions. Therefore, in an attempt to establish the interconnection between genetic predisposition and environmental conditions in triggering transmission of HIV, it is evident that HIV is transmitted solely through environmental conditions. Buy custom Genetic Predisposition and Environmental Conditions essay

Nutrition and Health in America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Nutrition and Health in America - Essay Example The physical education programs which are introduced at the school level don't offer sufficient physical activities which could keep a child healthy. So in their grooming ages like at the age of 5 they are not groomed well by their physical health trainers. And parents even don't account the importance of physical education programs and they are only concerned about the academic activities of their children. Unfortunately the schools don't pay attention towards this serious matter and they take physical education program as an optional task for the students. They feel that they are only responsible to polish student's mental abilities and to train them to get good grades. The fact is that if the students are physically fit they can produce even more positive outcome. A well know proverb also says that "health is wealth" .If you are healthy then only you can contribute towards good and can perform better. This is plenty evidence to turn around the educational policies. For example like mathematics and reading, the physical education should be made compulsory to pass the grade. It should be given its due importance like the other subjects as it grooms the personality of the child and takes him towards fitness as well as good grades. Americans like to spend their leisure time in front of televisions, computers, electronic games etc. But some forces are trying to divert their attention towards the fact that exercise can bring health benefits for people belong to any age group and both genders. American Heart Association has also taken step by giving awareness that the exercise could keep people away from heart problems. The opportunities to take part in marathon, cycle races and walks are being introduced by different charity fund raisers. It also plays role to motivate people to take part in such activities which could fulfill the need of exercise. The laws and regulations have also played its part in it. The walk paths are created for people to encourage going by walk wherever they want to go and not by motored transportation. Pilates, yoga and other gentler activities are becoming popular among the people and attaining their attention towards them. World's population on the world sports reveled that the participants were growing in many sports which were above 45. Now days the events are specifically arranged for the people who belong to age group of 45 and above. They participate in such activities and pass their leisure time instead of watching televisions as they used to generation ago. Now its time for parents and the education policy makes to take corrective action and should realize the importance of the physical education in the early ages of child. Parents should encourage their children to carry outdoor activities and to participate in such games which offer exercise .So that their adult ones could be able to develop immunity against different life taking diseases.Work cited: British Journal of Nutrition (2008), 99, suppl.1, S26-S32 The author

The relations of Turkey with the European Union Essay

The relations of Turkey with the European Union - Essay Example The union had many requirements for the membership candidacy acceptance. In December 1999 however, the EU dropped its preconditions, the reasons of which were several. Associated through its Ottoman past to the Balkans, at the edge of Central Asia, and adjoining the Middle East oil fields, Turkey was deemed a very significant participant on the international stage with huge potential to play a stabilizing role in a turbulent region; it could not be ignored. The post 9-11 era poses critical implications in the world politics today. Any plotted course of such decision making is prone to have a long lasting impact, not only on the concerned countries, but also on every affected party. In this case, the Turkey-EU relations, as well as their future nature of this relationship, not only affect them, but also EU’s relations with its neighboring Muslim countries. It took 3 decades until Turkey became a legitimate candidate country for an absolute membership in the EU. This research pr oposal tends to closely examine if Turkey should join the EU, and comprehensively discusses the potential resulting implications arising from whether or not Turkey joins it. A comprehensive review of literature has been conducted to study different theories and perspectives from different directly concerned parties, stakeholders, and various analysts who have evaluated Turkey’s standing from different angles. Further on, the proposal outlines our research objectives for this paper, discusses the research methodology to be employed, as well as highlight the ethical issues and limitations we’re prone to come across. Research Questions: The primary objective of this section is to construct a succinct discussion, and with all the pros and cons of the resulting impact, be able to reach an answer to the following research questions: Should Turkey join the EU? What advantage would Turkey gain from attaining accession to the EU? What advantage would EU gain from Turkish access ion? What are the negative implications if Turkey joins EU? Literature Review/Background According to Van Herpen (2004) Turkey has been a significant geopolitical participant on the European stage for more than six centuries. Initially it was deemed as a threat, in response to which Luther inscribed his pamphlet ‘On War against the Turk’. But with due evolution, for the past 5 decades, Turkey has been a close ally to Europe in the NATO. Even though Turkey is an Islamic country, however, the Islam followed over there is not only identified as moderate and accepting, but is also barred from the public sphere. A decade ago, Rouleau (2000, p. 100) was of the view that Turkey stands at a crossroads; the ‘accession partnership document’ that it presented to the EU is a roadmap for the extensive political and economic reforms Turkey needs to endorse if it intends on joining the EU. However, according to the so-called Copenhagen regulations, certain guidelines were to be followed by all EU membership candidates including Turkey, which basically revolved around establishing ‘Western-style democratic institutions guaranteeing rule of law, individual rights, and minority rights’. Turkey, however, even after 10 months of the issuance of these norms,

Marijuana and Prostitution Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Marijuana and Prostitution - Coursework Example The process of using one’s body to eaer money has been done in the olden ages and the pre historic times since the advent of the man into the earth. As of now, prostitution is not legalized in many jurisdictions all over the world. Countries such as the Netherlands have been able to legalize prostitution due to their progressive ideas and the fact that it is a huge way of making money through taxing this profession. In the following paragraphs I will explain whether prostitution is like any other crime, and if not then why do we need to legalize the oldest profession in the world. Question: 1 Whether Prostitution is like any other crime in the world? Prostitution is the art of providing the pleasure of sex on a continued basis for a long time. It has often been remarked that prostitution is like any other crime, but when one has a closer look at things and analyses them from a different perspective, one arrives at a conclusion that prostitution is not like any other crime. To commit a crime, there are two essential components, which have to be fulfilled by the person committing the crime. The first is the fact that there should be Mens Rea, and the second is the fact that there should be Actus Resus. Mens Rea is the guilty mind, while actus reus is the act committed by the guilty mind. A guilty mind under the definition of criminal law would constitute a mind which has negativism imbibed in it along with having a wrong intention of doing things in his/her favour. Prostitution is not connected with the guilty mind at all, if it was then having sex in the bedroom would also constitute to having a guilty mind and would have therefore been labeled as a crime. The imperative understanding which needs to be made here is that prostitution is nothing but providing the services of sex, and nothing else. We avail the services of law, other pleasure seeking services, then under the same perspective and the same context we also seek the services of Sex, and therefor e nothing wrong should be perceived in that context. Prostitution should be legalized for two significant reasons. The first one is the fact that there is no inclusion of any sort of guilty mind in the process of availing these services. The primary reason for availing this service is for pleasure seeking purpose and not from a criminal intention. The second reason is to have a check on the spread of STDs, especially AIDS. If prostitution is legalized all over the world, especially in countries such as India and South Africa, then it would help dramatically in having a check on AIDS along with the process of the controlling the same. Question 2: Whether Marijuana should be legalized? Yes, Marijuana should be legalized. In the United States, Marijuana has already been legalized in Colorado and Washington. This is just the beginning. The primary reason behind the legalization is again the same as prostitution. There is no criminal intent or any element criminality in the use and distr ibution of the drug. There have been many theories as to why marijuana was banned in the first place, but it must be understood and examined by the scholars that marijuana was the first drug of its kind, which provided pleasure to the human mind and brought him relaxation. The use of Marijuana for personal consumption has to be legalized in more places in the USA. The process can be initiated by having decriminalization legislation in place, and then once the response is understood and the feedback is received, then the process of legalization can be initiated. All this will happen in due course of time, and therefore although we need to keep moving slowly, we need to make sure that we move in the right direction. The benefits of legalization of Marijuana will be in a huge number. First of all, it will add as a source

Business Law - Contract Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business Law - Contract - Essay Example As a general rule, contracts are binding regardless of their form as long as the essential requisites are present. However, there are those contracts that should be in certain form, for example, should be in writing, to be enforceable. A contracting party who violated the terms or conditions of a contract may be sued for breach of contract in a trial court. Breach of contract may be committed if there is a valid or binding contract or when a contract was already formed. The guilty party is ordered to pay damages capable of pecuniary estimation to the aggrieved party. A person who is in good faith or who is innocent cannot be sued if there is a breach of contract. Likewise, a third party who has no participation or connection in the formation of the contract cannot be sued. A contract may be bilateral or unilateral. A bilateral contract is one in which both of the contracting parties formulated and agreed upon the terms and conditions of the contract. Thus, the contracting parties have reciprocal obligation to perform their promises and the contract is already binding and enforceable immediately after a valid consent was given. In a contract of sale for example, the buyer promised to pay the seller of a piano the amount of $1,000 if the seller had delivered the piano in the house of the buyer. If the seller does not deliver the piano, the buyer has no obligation to

A report on what your local banker says he or she can do to help you Research Paper

A report on what your local banker says he or she can do to help you get paid from abroad by customers of your new small export - Research Paper Example Following section will discuss as to what our local banker can offer to us as an exporting company. Financing Facilities for Exporting Company During our discussion with the banker, we came to know that an exporting company can have access to different sources of finance to help it achieve its overall organizational objectives. First source of finance identified by our banker was for the purpose of meeting our working capital requirements including sourcing raw materials, managing our receivables as well as paying our overheads and salaries. Our banker informed us that exporters often enjoy concessionary rates of interest on such working capital facilities because they help bring the country the precious foreign exchange which is essential for managing balance of payments of a country. The export related financing for meeting our working capital requirements however, was related with our ability to take the new orders and financing, according to banker, will be limited to the amount of orders we receive. Another important source of finance identified by our banker was the discounting of letter of credits which we receive from our buyers in international market. As one of the conditions of our dealings, we will ask our customers to open a letter of credit in our favor thus providing us added security and safety.

Writer's choice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 41

Writer's choice - Essay Example Franz Ferdinand was the archduke in Austria- Hungary. He murdered by Gavrilo Princip, who was from Serbia. He was ordered to complete this mission by Black Hand; a secret military group. The rest were primary causes of the war but were not immediate. One of them was militarism. Britain had an immense army that Germany envied. They began to compete towards building larger armies that meant increased arms and weapons. Need for prestige and power, the more one nation built their army, the more the other governments felt need to increase theirs. In the long run, civilian nations began to suffer heavy taxation to cater for the militants. Creation of alliances. This was supposed to bring a sense of security. In any case of war, those countries were expected to protect each other. The alliances were a threat to cause a world war if any country confronted one of the allied countries will cause all the rest to come forward. Imperialism was mobilizing smaller nations a ruling them. Gathering colonies was a way of increasing a nation’s wealth. Global competition for this colonies resulted to major confrontations and chaos (Bentley and Ziegler, Traditions and Encounters. Volume I, From the Beginning to 1500: a brief global history). We care about the World War 1 because after the war; women gained more rights in the society than before. They were able to take better roles in the community and do things they couldnt. More job opportunities were created which automatically resulted to improved technology e.g. guns, airplanes, etc. After all, the war had its benefits that are very useful to date

Business Law - Contract Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business Law - Contract - Essay Example As a general rule, contracts are binding regardless of their form as long as the essential requisites are present. However, there are those contracts that should be in certain form, for example, should be in writing, to be enforceable. A contracting party who violated the terms or conditions of a contract may be sued for breach of contract in a trial court. Breach of contract may be committed if there is a valid or binding contract or when a contract was already formed. The guilty party is ordered to pay damages capable of pecuniary estimation to the aggrieved party. A person who is in good faith or who is innocent cannot be sued if there is a breach of contract. Likewise, a third party who has no participation or connection in the formation of the contract cannot be sued. A contract may be bilateral or unilateral. A bilateral contract is one in which both of the contracting parties formulated and agreed upon the terms and conditions of the contract. Thus, the contracting parties have reciprocal obligation to perform their promises and the contract is already binding and enforceable immediately after a valid consent was given. In a contract of sale for example, the buyer promised to pay the seller of a piano the amount of $1,000 if the seller had delivered the piano in the house of the buyer. If the seller does not deliver the piano, the buyer has no obligation to

Writer's choice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 41

Writer's choice - Essay Example Franz Ferdinand was the archduke in Austria- Hungary. He murdered by Gavrilo Princip, who was from Serbia. He was ordered to complete this mission by Black Hand; a secret military group. The rest were primary causes of the war but were not immediate. One of them was militarism. Britain had an immense army that Germany envied. They began to compete towards building larger armies that meant increased arms and weapons. Need for prestige and power, the more one nation built their army, the more the other governments felt need to increase theirs. In the long run, civilian nations began to suffer heavy taxation to cater for the militants. Creation of alliances. This was supposed to bring a sense of security. In any case of war, those countries were expected to protect each other. The alliances were a threat to cause a world war if any country confronted one of the allied countries will cause all the rest to come forward. Imperialism was mobilizing smaller nations a ruling them. Gathering colonies was a way of increasing a nation’s wealth. Global competition for this colonies resulted to major confrontations and chaos (Bentley and Ziegler, Traditions and Encounters. Volume I, From the Beginning to 1500: a brief global history). We care about the World War 1 because after the war; women gained more rights in the society than before. They were able to take better roles in the community and do things they couldnt. More job opportunities were created which automatically resulted to improved technology e.g. guns, airplanes, etc. After all, the war had its benefits that are very useful to date

Epicurean Ethics Essay Example for Free

Epicurean Ethics Essay Upon understanding the brief and general philosophy of how to live a good life from an Epicurean’s viewpoint, I too thought that his philosophy centered around the self, how to achieve pleasure for the self, how to avoid pain to protect the self, all of which did seem very egoistic. However, throughout reading some of his theories and ideas, analyzing them, as well as reading other philosophers’ interpretations, I was able to see how this can be misunderstood if not given careful thought. This common misconception of his philosophy was widely misunderstood because although his philosophy centered around gaining pleasure for the self and avoiding pain, it also focused on not acting upon greed when on the search of pleasure, and only satisfying needs that are natural and absolutely necessary for the survival of an individual, rather than on the kind of pleasure that is achieved by eating luxurious foods, drinking fancy wines, having a high social status and indulging in materialistic things. Aside from having pleasure as the primary goal in life, Epicurus focused a good deal on how to avoid pain as well. In fact, Epicurus defines and measures pleasure not by how much happiness it may bring to the soul and body, but by the absence of pain which is the only way to achieve pleasure. He categorizes pleasure into three different parts which will be discussed later in this paper, as well as how one can have a peaceful and tranquil mind. To achieve the state of mind that Epicurus believes will bring pleasure to an individual’s life, one must eliminate all fears and anxieties over the unknown such as the power of God and how much of one’s life is dependent on the higher being. To ease these frightening thoughts and anxieties, Epicurus believed it was necessary to explain all of the unknown factors of the supernatural such as the fact that Gods have no interest in human affairs and live in their own society. He also thought that much of the stress and anxiety came from not knowing what happens to the body and the soul after death. Being a naturalist, he thought it was best to explain his theory in scientific terms that are more clear and concise rather than something that was mythical and could have been made up. Although he used the atomist theory to inspire his own, he made significant changes to it explaining exactly what does happen to the soul and the body and how there should be nothing to fear and be anxious over. Epicurus was a naturalist and adapted the concept of the atomist theory to his own beliefs. As briefly stated before, he believed that fear and anxiety comes from not knowing the unknown, such as supernatural occurrences, the concept of God, and life after death. Therefore, by explaining how the divine and all powerful works and advising one not to fear the Gods, as well as using the atomist theory to come up with his own theory so that one knows exactly what will happen to the body and soul after death, he believes that there would be much less anxiety and fear in the mind of an Epicurean. According to the atomist theory, the universe is composed of only two things which are infinite shapes and sizes of atoms, and an infinite void. The atoms of which our universe is composed of are infinite in number, unchangeable, and are unable to be cut or divided. It also states that our senses originate from atoms being cut off by objects Epicurus however, believed that our senses originate from our judgments and perceptions of these atoms rather than atoms being cut off by objects. Although Epicurus adapted this theory, he also made significant changes to it in support of his teachings on living a life of a tranquil mind. He emphasized it’s importance to prove that people shouldn’t have fear of life after death because if death means the loss of all consciousness in the mind and the dissolution of the body into atoms, then we have nothing to fear. Our perceptions, judgments and experiences of the world are no longer in our consciousness, because death is the lack of all these things, therefore once death comes there would be nothing to fear or feel such as pain because our consciousness which gives life to all these things would be completely gone. Epicurus encourages his students to live a life free from the stress and anxiety of the unknown life after death, giving them a tranquil and peaceful state of mind. This in turn contributes to his theory that to live a complete and happy life of pleasures, one must be free of all worries and anxieties, as well as avoiding bodily pain. Epicurus also believed that the source of trouble in our consciousness and what causes stress and anxiety in the mind is the fear of the divine and all powerful God. Although Epicurus is not an Atheist and was like most others during his time a polytheistic believing in many Gods, his views on religion and the all powerful God varied greatly from the rest. Epicurus never denied the existence of Gods but held a belief that Gods and human beings had no relation to one another. He believed that Gods were not concerned with human affairs and rejected the widely held belief that Gods gave us reason to live in peace and harmony so that we can be happy and live a good life. He also rejected the idea that Gods held complete control of the path of our lives and worried over us and our conflicts greatly and instead, believed that Gods had their own separate lives and affairs and were always in the highest state of happiness. According to Panichas’ essay in Epicurus on â€Å"Theology†, it is believed that Epicurus never fully justified why he believes that Gods are always happy but says that his belief in Gods came from the idea that we are all born with an innate knowledge of Gods existence. This means that newborn children don’t need to be given the knowledge of the existence of divine power, but are already born with that idea implanted in them. His supporting argument for the existence of Gods is that since everyone is born with the innate idea of their existence, and everyone already has an established opinion of the Gods, then they must exist. Epicurus’ argument against the popular belief of Gods having extreme concern of human affairs and conflicts was that Gods didn’t care for human affairs because they were extremely happy living their own separate lives. Therefore, if Gods were concerned with human conflicts and troubles then they wouldn’t be happy but rather stressed, worried and anxious, which would then make them unhappy. Epicurus’ goal in presenting his arguments using physics and atomism, against religion and its superstitious beliefs, was a way of assuring his students that they shouldn’t disturb the mind because of worries and anxieties over the belief that happiness, misery, and life after death are completely dependent upon the Gods because this in turn comes in conflict with the primary goal of life on earth which is happiness. Instead, he emphasized the importance of attaining courage through meditation on the purpose of life so that human beings can master the fear of death and the gods. A life of happiness and pleasure in Epicurean terms is defined as having a calm and peaceful mind, free of anxieties and worries, as well as a body free of pain. By teaching his students the idea of atomism which frees people from the stress and anxieties of life after death, and the belief that the Gods are not in complete control of our lives and are merely part of their own separate society, Epicurus is able to liberate their anxious and unhappy minds and allows them to live a conscious free life from disturbances and stresses of the unknown world. Epicurus most likely felt the need to fully explain the aspects of supernatural causes which society at the time thought to be controlled by God, as well as other natural phenomena such as how things came about on earth, so that people had a clear understanding of things they had not known before, and in turn no longer fearing them. Popular belief of mass society during the Hellenistic period was that any supernatural occurrences of the world such as the creation of the universe, the existence of human beings, or the world having just enough resources for human beings to be able to survive were all of Gods creations. However, Lucretius who was an Epicurean student stated that the world could not have been created by the Gods because it is imperfect and such perfect beings could not have created something so imperfect as the universe. He proves this idea in support of his argument, by stating that the world in itself which is full of imperfections, giving an example of the large amount of land that is completely useless to mankind but is inhabited by wild animals, or death that stalks every minute of our lives, could have been the creations of the divine and all powerful because if they were, then that would mean that Gods themselves are the sources of all pain and evil. Lucretius also states that an Epicurean must accept the fact that the natural world is mortal, which means it can that it can be diseased with corruption, war, and greed and follows a cycle of creation and destruction within itself. He elaborates on this statement saying the world must be thought of as a mortal body with a beginning, and an end. As stated before, Epicureanism holds the belief that like everything else, Gods are composed of atoms, but atoms that are different than those of human beings. These atoms in On the Nature of the Universe are described as very flimsy atoms that are ethereal, and can be barely perceived by the mind, therefore they cannot be touched. It also says that they exist somewhere among their own nature, which means that they do not exist anywhere near the society of human beings. In explaining this theory to his followers, he did so to prove that there is no reason to live in fear of Gods because they live in a society that is completely separate and different from ours, and as stated before, they are engaged in their own affairs and have no concern for the welfare of human beings. He stressed the importance of this because Epicurus believed that all fear arises from the unknown. The unknown as being what happens to the soul, body, and life after death, and the fear and anxiety over Gods’ declaration punishments or rewards towards human beings. By explaining all the unanswered questions of life, rejecting the idea of Gods being in complete control in the affair of our lives, in simple and naturalistic terms that can be proven through metaphysics, rather than relying on retold myths that cannot be proven, seen, or sensed, he is able to direct their minds towards a positive light in which they can achieve a state of mind that is at peace, allowing them to live their lives in pleasure and happiness. Epicurus’ view on the soul and what happens to it after death greatly varied from the Platonic and Homeric view of the soul. Unlike Plato who believed that the soul became part of a heavenly pilgrimage, and the Homeric view that the soul descends into the darkness of the kingdom of the dead, Epicurus believed that the Soul merely dissolves upon death, which is without sensation. This means that since something that dissolves upon death is free of sensing and feeling, then there is no pain, and therefore there is nothing to fear. Although Epicurus agreed with both the Platonic and Homeric view that an individual is composed of the body and the soul, and that upon death, the soul leaves the body, he disagreed on their views of what happens to the soul after death. Epicurus believes that the soul is corporeal, which means that what happens to the body and the soul is a physical occurrence, and once the body starts dissolving, the soul along with the body begins undergoing a physical transformation in which it also dissolves, the process therefore being void of the sensation or perception of what is happening. The soul according to Epicurus was mainly made of breath, heat, and air which he considered to be made of a material substance. These three elements were used by Epicureans to explain the differences in characters and moods of feeling in both humans as well as animals. Aetios sums up the functions of these elements saying that the element of breath gives the soul the power to move, the air gives it tranquility and calmness, and the heat produces the perception of warmth from the body. Epicurus also believed that the soul was made of an unknown element as well, that is much more advanced in structure and its function in the soul which allows it to feel in harmony with the rest of the elements as well as the body. Lucretius further elaborated on this hidden fourth element by stating that it is a crucial part of the soul because it provides the soul with sensation. Although the soul is the major cause of sensation, it cannot sense without the body. This then means that the soul cannot sense without the body, and the body cannot sense without the soul. Lucretius states that the soul and the body must be united for a human being to have full access to sensation, therefore one cannot survive without the other . This theory is used in support of their argument of what happens to the soul after it is released from the body, which is that since the soul which brings sensation, reason, and perception of the outside world to the body, is released from the body, the body can no longer feel or come up with reason or judgment of what is occurring. The soul however, has a more significant role in the making of an individual than the body does because if a part of the body is lost, such as a leg or an arm, the soul is able to remain in the body and still give an individual sensation, whereas the part that was lost such as a leg or an arm although still exists, it can no longer have the soul be a part of it or retain any sensation. In general, the body can be viewed as the home and protection of the soul, and if the body is destroyed, then it can no longer protect nor shelter the soul, and as a result, the soul scatters into tiny separate creative energies. All of Epicurus’ teachings and doctrines can be traced back to, and are in relation to attaining pleasure which is the main goal in life. Epicurus defines pleasure as not having certain sensations of happiness, but rather as the absence of bodily pain and mental disturbance. He also believed that pleasure and pain are the main driving forces of a human being, saying that desire is driven by pleasure, and avoidance is driven by pain. Although many view Epicureanism as a form of egoism in which all actions are taken for the benefit of the self, and although this is true, Epicurus’ theory on attaining pleasure and happiness can be seen as something that is able to balance out, and in turn, become a life of virtue. A balanced life of happiness and virtue according to Epicurus can be attained by being prudent and having a sense of discernment when it comes to pleasure. Therefore, someone who is able to do this by acting carefully when it came to the desires and the indulgences in life, and being virtuous to this belief isn’t necessarily set and done on his/her quest for pleasure, but on the right path to attain it. Epicurus believes that without the ability to sense things such as the sight of beauty, the taste of food, the sound of music, or the feel of an object, true pleasures and happiness cannot be achieved. Therefore, the act of sensation is of extreme importance to an Epicurean because without sensation, the good life is unattainable. Epicurus also states that there is nothing more truthful than sensation. This means that the act of sensing doesn’t need to be proven because we sense things exactly for what they are. Sensations are also not voluntary and are received through direct contact with an object or thing through the five sense organs which are sight, touch, taste, sound, and smell. These five senses, in turn are then perceived in the mind and can be enlarged or diminished in the mind. He then considers arguments against his theory that say that just because we sense things and then perceive them in the mind that does not always make them true. A classic example he gives is an octagonal tower seen from a far distance is in actuality cylindrical, or a tall building from a far distance may look small through the sense of sight, but in reality the building only appears to be small because it is seen from a far distance. To support his argument, Epicurus states that it is then up to the individual to use reason, logic, and our past experiences to determine whether this observation is true or not. Sensation therefore, is the basic foundation of knowledge according to Epicurus. Although sensation is of extreme importance in Epicurean philosophy, the concept of sensation still goes back to the main idea of Epicurus’ teachings which is pleasure and happiness. According to Epicurus, pleasure is the goal of all things. However, to argue against those who say his teachings are egoistic, Epicurus emphasized on the right kind of pleasure. For example, in Epicurus’ â€Å"Letter to Menoceus† he explains that indulging in the pleasures and luxuries of life is not what makes a good life, but the choices we make when in search of pleasure and avoidance of physical or mental pain: â€Å"For it is not continuous drinkings and revellings, nor the satisfaction of lusts, nor the enjoyment of fish, and other luxuries of the wealthy table, which produce a pleasant life, but sober reason, searching, out the motives for all choice and avoidance, and banishing mere opinions, to which are due the greatest disturbances of the spirit. This quote explains that Epicurus is not concerned with the quality of material things such as fine foods and other luxuries, but rather whether these things are enough to eliminate pain so that we can have pleasure. Epicurus believes that the more we can limit our pleasures and desires, especially the ones that are most necessary and natural such as food and water to survive and avoid bodi ly pain, the more we are likely to attain a happy and pleasurable life. To further understand the concept of limiting pleasures and desires, Epicurus states that when one removes all physical and mental pain, for example eating to avoid hunger, or overcoming fear and anxiety to be free of mental pain, is when pleasure can be achieved. However, it is up to the individual to not become engaged in fulfilling â€Å"natural but unnecessary† pleasures, such as eating more than needed, or having luxurious food instead of normal food. Epicurus believes that this is where we must use our judgment and good reason to pick and choose what will best fulfill our needs without being overly self-indulgent. He divides pleasures and desires into three separate categories. The first one is natural and necessary which as stated before, are daily survival necessities like food and water. The second form of pleasure is natural but unnecessary which is a pleasure that is natural such as food, but not necessary such as having extravagant food rather than regular food that would eliminate hunger. Lastly, the third type of pleasure is neither natural nor necessary which refers to fame, having a high status among peers in society, or the desire to be accepted by others. The ability of fully understanding these categories and practicing them religiously on a daily basis will direct one to a life that is free of bodily pain and mental disturbance. Epicurus defines the good life not by the presence of pleasure but by the absence of mental and physical pain. Once the main goal of avoiding pain and fear are achieved, the individual won’t be on the search for something that is missing because all pain is gone, thus, the desire to eliminate it is gone as well leaving the mind and body free of pain and anxiety. Epicurus’ definition of the wise man is one who is free from most troubles. Although peace of the mind is of extreme importance in Epicureanism, one cannot achieve it without being self-sufficient. A wise man, in Epicurean standards is one who does not depend on others. Therefore high held positions such as having political power, or even something as common as marrying and having a family creates too much stress because your life becomes strained with anxiety over the actions of others which are completely out of your control. Epicurus believes that the outside world creates too much pressure that can lead to anxiety because most of the things dealing with the outside world are outside of your control. A life of simplicity and freedom from anxiety and pain are a way of life for a wise man. When one gains complete control over these things, as well as overcoming the fears of the outside world, then one can live a happy and pleasurable life because there is no desire for things which one cannot find him/herself. A free life according to Epicurus also means not having too many possessions because owning too many materialistic things results in robberies which only lead to more consequences and trouble all of which can be avoided. However, what a wise man should do when he is in the possession of many things is donating it and distributing them to those that are less fortunate and those in need. Epicurus says that gaining gratitude from your neighbors is more important than indulging in unnecessary things. This thus proves that an Epicurean life isn’t egoistic as most critics seem to think but rather a way of life in which an individual can live freely without worry. Although the main idea of Epicurus’ philosophy is pleasure as the main goal, the word pleasure has a different meaning than the one we are used to. The word â€Å"pleasure† in epicurean terms means the absence of pain which is why a good amount of Epicurean philosophy discusses ways in which one can avoid pain and eliminate worries, anxieties and fears. Pleasure according to Epicurus has nothing to do with being in the possession of luxurious items because that is not what brings pleasure to the individual but rather a peaceful mental state or being: It is better for you to be free of fear lying upon a pallet, than to have a golden couch and rich table and be full of trouble . † Although Epicurus does not believe in a wise man having a family and advises that one should avoid conforming to society and the pressures of the outside world, he emphasizes the value of a strong friendship and believes it to be the second most important thing in a noble man after wisdom . Even more surprising than this is the fact that Epicurus welcomed women into his school and considered them as potential friends despite the time period and social standards of Ancient Greece at the time. Epicurus welcomed all kinds of people into his school and didn’t look at gender, wealth, age, or social class to determine a person’s worth of attending. Aside from not picking student and friends based on external factors, Epicurus believed that all friendships arise from self-interest: â€Å"Every friendship in itself is to be desired; but the first cause of friendship was a man’s needs . However, friendships can’t always be seen as a relationship between two people that’s driven solely on one’s own self-interests and benefits, they should be much more and beyond that. Throughout time, Epicurus believes that a friendship that once started only as an act of self-satisfaction to benefit the self can become much more intimate and grow beyond the desire to be friends just to gain needs driven by sole self-interest. He also advised that friendships shouldn’t be pushed to their extremes when on the pursuit of benefits and should not be pushed to the extreme if it’s completely void of all benefits because then, the individual would have no desire to keep the friendship alive at all. Once two friends can overcome that stage of self-interest and gain intimacy then all expectations of each other and what is needed for the benefit of the self is gone. The mere fact of just knowing and having a friend and his/her company should bring enough pleasure to the individual to not care about other things that would only benefit the self. Epicurus did not believe that sexual love was of any benefit to an individual and although it can be associated with bringing pleasure, it causes much more disturbances in the mind that far outweigh the pleasures it may bring: â€Å"No pleasure is a bad thing in itself, but the means which produce some pleasures bring with them disturbances many times greater than the pleasures. Epicurus believes that fulfilling sexual desires are unnecessary for the survival of an individual and can be dealt without, considering how much mental disturbance it may bring afterwards. Epicurus categorizes this pleasure as the â€Å"natural and unnecessary† which means that although the desire for attaining sexual pleasure may be completely natural for the individual, it isn’t necessary for survival, therefore it is not an absolute necessity. This thus makes the act of fulfilling sexual pleasure to be vain and selfish, as well as bringing disturbance to the mind. The reason Epicurus advises the wise man not to engage in sexual encounters is because the pleasure that comes from sex can be too intense for the individual to handle. When something so intense yet so pleasurable becomes a much needed desire, it is sure to bring disturbance to the mind. Another way sexual desire can be seen as creating disturbances in the mind is considering how before sexual pleasures can be fulfilled, one must pursue the person of the opposite sex and develop an intimate level of friendship or relationship. With that relationship comes fear and anxiety over losing your partner and concerns of what the future might bring. After a relationship has been developed, child bearing is the next step which creates even more disturbances to the mind, because with children come more external and outside powers that are out of your control which result in fears, frustrations, hopes anxieties and pain all of which can be avoided if one does not become involved in an intimate sexual relationship. How does one avoid mental disturbances to achieve peace in the mind? Epicurus believes that pleasure can still be attained without fulfilling sexual desires by simply forming strong friendships and developing a level of intimacy that would allow the friendship to survive solely on that level of intimacy and not self-interested benefits and needs. Once a deep enough level of intimacy has been developed, things such as trust, loyalty, and pleasure will surely ensue afterwards. Whereas a relationship driven by sexual pleasures will result in jealousy, hate, possessiveness, anger, and bittersweet memories that could last a lifetime. Therefore, to avoid having to go through these struggles in life and living a life of simplicity and freedom, Epicurus advises one to seek friendships that doesn’t require too much of one’s time, energy, and physical or mental strength. Living the life of an Epicurean means living a life of simplicity, avoiding anything that is too dangerous for one’s well being even if it is the norm in society such as getting married, and being on a life long pursuit for pleasure. As stated before, from a quick glance at Epicurus’ philosophy, one can conclude that his teachings were all self centered, however, upon further reading into his doctrines, as well as how other philosophers were able to interpret and justify some of his teachings, his true meaning of a virtuous and good life can be more clearly understood. His philosophies on how to be a wise man and achieve the good life prove how non egoistic Epicureanism is. Although it does always focus on gaining pleasure for the self, it does so only to a certain extent in which one attains enough pleasure to eliminate the pain. Once that has been achieved, going on a pursuit for more pleasure is considered vain, and as I have discussed before, Epicurus categorizes this pleasure as the â€Å"natural and unnecessary† or â€Å"unnatural and unnecessary. † Therefore he advises one not to seek these kinds of pleasures because that can create more disturbances in the mind. His thorough explanation and solution on how to achieve a tranquil mind by giving insight on the Gods and what happens to the soul and body after death are also a huge part of his philosophy. Overall, Epicureanism was a very modern school of philosophy compared to the time period, and the location of where it had been originated. Epicurus’ way of not discriminating against minorities such as women or the lower class, and not religiously worshiping supernatural beings even though that had been the norm in society, is very much like the life he preaches one should live in which one doesn’t conform to the standards of the masses but pursues a path of his own, where a peaceful mind and a body free of pain can be found.